Summary
Chapter 11 in the third edition Clark
& Mayer’s book e-Learning and the
Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia
Learning addresses the topic of worked examples. The authors discuss how worked examples can
be used as a powerful to tool to build new cognitive skills. Work examples are a type of example that are
proving to be quite effective by presenting step-by-step demonstrations of a
task or problem solution. In this chapter,
the focus is on modeling examples that utilize a human demonstrating how to
complete a task with commentary. The
types of modeling examples described are cognitive models, for skills such as
software use, and interpersonal models, for for social skills such as sales
techniques. The use of modeling examples
has recently been shown to decrease errors in the training and practice process
and increase learning for various skills ranging from algebra (Sweller &
Cooper, 1985) to the application of teaching principles (Moreno & Ortegano-Layne,
2008; Moreno & Valdez, 2007).
In this edition
of the book, Clark & Mayer focus on evidence from research since their
second edition to present 5 principles in order to maximize the effectiveness
of modeled examples; 1) Fade from worked examples to problems, 2) Promote
self-explanation problems, 3) Include instructional examples of worked examples
in some situations, 4) Apply the multimedia principles to examples, and 5)
Support learning transfer. In explaining
these principles, they detail how to fade from a fully guided example to
independent work in stages, implement higher order thinking through the use of
self-explanation problems, and provide added instructional explanation that can
be accessed when needed through things like a “help” button. An in-depth look at applying the multimedia
principles of prior chapters in the use of modeled examples includes; illustrating
worked examples with relevant visuals, presenting steps with audio but not audio
with text, presenting steps with integrated text, presenting steps in
conceptually meaningful chunks, presenting steps with learner control of
pacing, and familiarizing learners with example context.
In order to
support learning transfer, far learning is discussed. This is the ability to apply the knowledge
gained in different contexts. Guidelines
for this process are explained that include; providing varied context work
examples, including self-explanation questions, and requiring active comparison
of varied context examples to learn how to apply the principles demonstrated in
different settings. In closing, the
authors discuss what is not yet known about worked examples, such as when fading
should be used versus self-explanation questions, how best to design and use
modeling examples, and how to apply active observation to workforce learning.
Chapter Topic Outline
· Worked examples explained
· Maximizing benefits of worked examples
o
Principle 1: Fade from worked
examples to problems
o
Principle 2: Promote
self-explanations
o
Principle 3: Include instructional
examples of worked examples in some situations
o
Principle 4: Apply the multimedia
principles to examples
§ Multimedia principle
§ Modality and redundancy principles
§ Contiguity principle
§ Segmenting principle
§ Pretraining principle
o
Principle 5: Support learning
transfer
· Design guidelines for far transfer worked examples
o
Guideline 1: Use varied context
worked examples
o
Guideline 2: Include
self-explanation questions
o
Guideline 3: Require active
comparison of varied context examples
· What we don’t know about worked examples
o
When to use fading versus
self-explanation questions
o
How to design and use modeling
examples
o
How active observation can be
applied to workforce learning
Reflection
This chapter is an excellent look at a
powerful and growing area in the use of technology in instruction both in the
classroom and in distance learning applications through worked examples. The use of guided examples using live
demonstrations and on paper with explanations is not new, for instance, it is
foundational in sheltered instruction observation protocol (SIOP) instruction
for English language learner (ELL) students.
Through the use of video and audio technology, students can now use this
in much more independent applications. This
chapter discusses how this format is proving effective in applications ranging
from mathematics instruction to sales technique training and emphasizes some
very important considerations.
A major consideration that is addressed
is that the use of worked examples can have a detrimental effect on learning
results if not done properly. This is
caused by the expertise reversal effect that Clark & Mayer discuss in
chapter 4. This phenomenon is “the idea
that instructional supports that help low-knowledge learners may not help (and
may even hurt) high-knowledge learners” (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p. 83). In the process of reducing the extraneous
cognitive load for low-knowledge learners, the load may be increased for
high-knowledge learners by “presenting information that is redundant to more
knowledgeable learners (while still essential for novices)” (Kalyuga & Liu,
2015). It is important to reduce the
extraneous cognitive load for novice learners by avoiding information that is
not needed, as well as avoiding redundant information for advanced
learners. In both cases, “reducing
extraneous load, frees cognitive resources that can be used for processing more
germane load” (Vandewaetere & Clarebout, 2013). Clark & Mayer explain that this can be
done by encouraging self-explanations from advanced learners. By doing so, they can use their knowledge and
apply their higher level understanding of the topic. Working examples should be designed to include
self-explanation questions, collaborative explanations, and active
observation. In this way, the advanced
learners can be engaged on a higher level.
The information presented in this chapter
has caused this writer to reflect on the use of modeling and examples in new
ways. Looking at the best way to serve
all learners, especially regarding high-knowledge learners, is important and
often overlooked. This will have an
effect on the ongoing design of the current ISD project under development and
the style of guided modeling being considered to teach instructors how to
utilize Google DocsTM and other programs. For the teachers that are already experienced
in the use of these resources, additional attention will have to be paid to the
inclusion of collaborative explanations and high level reflections on how to
best apply these resources in the classroom setting.
References:
Clark,
R. C., & Mayer, R. (2011). e-Learning and the science of instruction:
Proven
guidelines for consumers and designers of
multimedia learning (3rd Ed).
John Wiley & Sons P&T, 8/1/11.
VitalBook file.
Kalyuga,
S., & Liu, T. (2015). Managing cognitive load in technology-based learning
environments. Journal of
Educational Technology & Society, 18(4), 1-8.
Retrieved from http://p2048 ezproxy.liberty.edu.ezproxy.liberty.edu
/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/docview/
1736895884?accountid=12085
Vandewaetere,
M., & Clarebout, G. (2013). Cognitive load of learner control:
Extraneous or germane load? Education
Research International, doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.1155/2013/902809
