Summary
Chapter 11 in the third edition Clark
& Mayer’s book e-Learning and the
Science of Instruction: Proven Guidelines for Consumers and Designers of Multimedia
Learning addresses the topic of worked examples. The authors discuss how worked examples can
be used as a powerful to tool to build new cognitive skills. Work examples are a type of example that are
proving to be quite effective by presenting step-by-step demonstrations of a
task or problem solution. In this chapter,
the focus is on modeling examples that utilize a human demonstrating how to
complete a task with commentary. The
types of modeling examples described are cognitive models, for skills such as
software use, and interpersonal models, for for social skills such as sales
techniques. The use of modeling examples
has recently been shown to decrease errors in the training and practice process
and increase learning for various skills ranging from algebra (Sweller &
Cooper, 1985) to the application of teaching principles (Moreno & Ortegano-Layne,
2008; Moreno & Valdez, 2007).
In this edition
of the book, Clark & Mayer focus on evidence from research since their
second edition to present 5 principles in order to maximize the effectiveness
of modeled examples; 1) Fade from worked examples to problems, 2) Promote
self-explanation problems, 3) Include instructional examples of worked examples
in some situations, 4) Apply the multimedia principles to examples, and 5)
Support learning transfer. In explaining
these principles, they detail how to fade from a fully guided example to
independent work in stages, implement higher order thinking through the use of
self-explanation problems, and provide added instructional explanation that can
be accessed when needed through things like a “help” button. An in-depth look at applying the multimedia
principles of prior chapters in the use of modeled examples includes; illustrating
worked examples with relevant visuals, presenting steps with audio but not audio
with text, presenting steps with integrated text, presenting steps in
conceptually meaningful chunks, presenting steps with learner control of
pacing, and familiarizing learners with example context.
In order to
support learning transfer, far learning is discussed. This is the ability to apply the knowledge
gained in different contexts. Guidelines
for this process are explained that include; providing varied context work
examples, including self-explanation questions, and requiring active comparison
of varied context examples to learn how to apply the principles demonstrated in
different settings. In closing, the
authors discuss what is not yet known about worked examples, such as when fading
should be used versus self-explanation questions, how best to design and use
modeling examples, and how to apply active observation to workforce learning.
Chapter Topic Outline
· Worked examples explained
· Maximizing benefits of worked examples
o
Principle 1: Fade from worked
examples to problems
o
Principle 2: Promote
self-explanations
o
Principle 3: Include instructional
examples of worked examples in some situations
o
Principle 4: Apply the multimedia
principles to examples
§ Multimedia principle
§ Modality and redundancy principles
§ Contiguity principle
§ Segmenting principle
§ Pretraining principle
o
Principle 5: Support learning
transfer
· Design guidelines for far transfer worked examples
o
Guideline 1: Use varied context
worked examples
o
Guideline 2: Include
self-explanation questions
o
Guideline 3: Require active
comparison of varied context examples
· What we don’t know about worked examples
o
When to use fading versus
self-explanation questions
o
How to design and use modeling
examples
o
How active observation can be
applied to workforce learning
Reflection
This chapter is an excellent look at a
powerful and growing area in the use of technology in instruction both in the
classroom and in distance learning applications through worked examples. The use of guided examples using live
demonstrations and on paper with explanations is not new, for instance, it is
foundational in sheltered instruction observation protocol (SIOP) instruction
for English language learner (ELL) students.
Through the use of video and audio technology, students can now use this
in much more independent applications. This
chapter discusses how this format is proving effective in applications ranging
from mathematics instruction to sales technique training and emphasizes some
very important considerations.
A major consideration that is addressed
is that the use of worked examples can have a detrimental effect on learning
results if not done properly. This is
caused by the expertise reversal effect that Clark & Mayer discuss in
chapter 4. This phenomenon is “the idea
that instructional supports that help low-knowledge learners may not help (and
may even hurt) high-knowledge learners” (Clark & Mayer, 2011, p. 83). In the process of reducing the extraneous
cognitive load for low-knowledge learners, the load may be increased for
high-knowledge learners by “presenting information that is redundant to more
knowledgeable learners (while still essential for novices)” (Kalyuga & Liu,
2015). It is important to reduce the
extraneous cognitive load for novice learners by avoiding information that is
not needed, as well as avoiding redundant information for advanced
learners. In both cases, “reducing
extraneous load, frees cognitive resources that can be used for processing more
germane load” (Vandewaetere & Clarebout, 2013). Clark & Mayer explain that this can be
done by encouraging self-explanations from advanced learners. By doing so, they can use their knowledge and
apply their higher level understanding of the topic. Working examples should be designed to include
self-explanation questions, collaborative explanations, and active
observation. In this way, the advanced
learners can be engaged on a higher level.
The information presented in this chapter
has caused this writer to reflect on the use of modeling and examples in new
ways. Looking at the best way to serve
all learners, especially regarding high-knowledge learners, is important and
often overlooked. This will have an
effect on the ongoing design of the current ISD project under development and
the style of guided modeling being considered to teach instructors how to
utilize Google DocsTM and other programs. For the teachers that are already experienced
in the use of these resources, additional attention will have to be paid to the
inclusion of collaborative explanations and high level reflections on how to
best apply these resources in the classroom setting.
References:
Clark,
R. C., & Mayer, R. (2011). e-Learning and the science of instruction:
Proven
guidelines for consumers and designers of
multimedia learning (3rd Ed).
John Wiley & Sons P&T, 8/1/11.
VitalBook file.
Kalyuga,
S., & Liu, T. (2015). Managing cognitive load in technology-based learning
environments. Journal of
Educational Technology & Society, 18(4), 1-8.
Retrieved from http://p2048 ezproxy.liberty.edu.ezproxy.liberty.edu
/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu/docview/
1736895884?accountid=12085
Vandewaetere,
M., & Clarebout, G. (2013). Cognitive load of learner control:
Extraneous or germane load? Education
Research International, doi:http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.liberty.edu/10.1155/2013/902809
Roger
ReplyDeleteI agree with the points made by Clark & Mayer’s. This is bascialy a guide to preventing cognitive overload when taking online classes. The use of examples I find to be quite helpful. The points are lined up and clear to see. It has not changed my views of online learning it only made me see that there is help through the use of examples. This information is relevant to ISD project because through the use of examples anyone new to online learning would have a guide. This information will be good for me to apply to my future adult learners who need more of a boost. Thanks
Theresa
Absolutely true Theresa, this approach will certainly help avoid cognitive overload. Especially the germane load of new concepts. The information in this chapter has already helped me improve how I approach using examples in my classroom. By applying this approach to my worked examples with the inclusion of fading, self-explanation questions, collaborative explanations, and active observation in math I have found my high level students are more engaged and my lower level students are less frustrated with new concepts.
DeleteRoger,
ReplyDeleteGreat job outlining a particularly difficult chapter with lots of complex concepts. Your point about the importance of decreasing cognitive load and how we have to be careful for not only the lower students but the high-ability ones as well is incredibly important as educators. One piece of research I found that outlines a potential way to reduce this strain and improve worked examples and that is through segmenting- where either the worked examples are presented in segmented format or the students are instructed to segment them actively (Spanjers, Gog, & Merrienboer, 2011). In reading your review and looking at these types of articles, my views on distance education have shifted a bit. While I have heard of cognitive load theory in terms of a traditional classroom setting, I never thought of its implications in an online learning environment. I think this will help us continue to shape our ISD project and perhaps go back and add effective worked examples into our course.
Thanks for your thoughts!
Lisa
References
Spanjers, I. A. E., Gog, T., & Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2012). Segmentation of worked examples: Effects on cognitive load and learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26(3), 352-358. doi:10.1002/acp.1832
Thank you Lisa! I look forward to looking into your reference further, thank you for passing it on. :) I have already found this information to be helpful in my classroom instruction, especially in math, and plan to continue to improve my practice of these concepts in all subject areas.
DeleteRoger,
ReplyDeleteWell done on your review! You gave a thorough description on a chapter that provided the read with lots of important information. I agree with what you said about providing live demonstrations and scaffolding for students. Using visuals can help the learner build up to completing the work independently. As Lisa mentioned, I think it is important not to completely overwhelm our students. With online education, it can be easy to get carried away and provide many different resources and tools for our students to use. However, if the teacher goes overboard, it can do more harm than good. This goes along well with chapter 8 of the book, which is what I reviewed on my blog.
Thanks again Roger!
Thank you Melissa! It's so true that we can easily overwhelm our students, even with the best of intentions. These concepts have already been helpful to me and, as you mentioned, go well with the coherence principle that you wrote about. Using that principle to keep the information focused and these ideas to break down the presentation into understandable portions is powerful. Especially when attention is paid to empowering the higher level students to utilize their knowledge as well.
DeleteGreat post Roger! This is exactly how I teach my 6th grade math class. We go through several problems that are already worked. We then fade into problems that we work through together on the board. And finally, the students have problems that they work through on their own and then demonstrate how they worked them in front of the class. I find that this works well for my students. It helps them to understand the process of solving the math problems we are learning. Modeling how to solve the problems is the best way to show the students the step by step process. Thanks for you post and the great detail you went into!
ReplyDeleteThank you Dayna! I have always used a similar approach in teaching math as well and have found that this information has helped me to refine my approach while also better serving my higher level learners. As a 5th grade teacher, I am looking forward to seeing how I can continue to implement this approach further in all subjects.
DeleteThis comment has been removed by the author.
ReplyDeleteThis is a great piece of writing explicating the chapter on worked examples. According to Sweller, worked example is a learning effect predicted by cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1988). Extraneous cognitive load has affect directly in creating germane cognitive load s or schema, thus, one has to be careful, as you mention in your reflections, not to have a detrimental effect on the learning process of through the presentation of redundant information to high knowledge learners (Clark & Mayer, 2011). According to Paas, Renkl and Sweller, (2003), worked example contributes in improving learning through reducing the cognitive load during skill acquisition. Worked example "is one of the earliest and probably the best known cognitive load reducing technique" (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003). Worked example surely could be employed as a powerful educational tool via the use of technology in the traditional brick and mortar classroom as well as distance education.
ReplyDeleteReferences
Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. (2011). e-Learning and the science of instruction: Proven guidelines for consumers and designers of multimedia learning (3rd Ed). John Wiley & Sons P&T, 8/1/11. VitalBook file.
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational psychologist, 38(1), 1-4. Retrieved from http://www.squeaktime.com/uploads/1/0/0/4/10044815/pass-cognitiveloadtheoryandid-4.pdf
Sweller. J. (1988). Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning. Cognitive Science 12, 257-285. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1207/s15516709cog1202_4/epdf